The importance of public policy

The importance of public policy INTRODUCTION Public policy refers to the action or inaction of the government on an issue(s) (Thomas 2001 cited in Buse et al 2005). It sets hierarchy by carrying out the choices of those with the command of authority in the public. This makes public policy change very complex as various individuals, organisations and even the state have conflicting interest and capacities. There is therefore the need for coherence of interest/capacities in an attempt to effect a change (Colebatch 2002). AIM: The aim of this paper is to explain the strategies that would be used to effect a change in public policy on road safety in Nigeria. Health Issue and Public Health Importance: Road Traffic Collision (RTC) is a major public health issue globally. It is defined as personal injury resulting from collision of a vehicle with another vehicle(s) or a pedestrian, occurring on the public highway or footways (Worcestershire County Council 2010). The Situation Globally: RTC accounts for over 1.2 million deaths with about 20 to 50 million non fatal injuries (a major cause of disability) occurring annually. It is the 9th leading cause of death globally and is estimated to rise to be the 5th leading cause of death by year 2030 (with about 2.4 million fatalities per year) out ranking public health issues like tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS (presently the 5th leading cause of death) and diarrhoea diseases (WHO 2008). This means that by the year 2030, RTC will be perceived as deadly as HIV/AIDS is today, if urgent action is not taken. The global losses due to road traffic injuries are estimated to cost about 518 billion USD, costing the government between 1 3 % of its gross national product (WHO 2009a). Nigeria: Nigeria is Africas most populous country, with an estimated population size of about 151,319,500 (World Bank 2010). It is one of the 10 countries with the highest Road traffic death rates in the world (WHO 2009a). RTA is the commonest cause of death from unintentional injuries/ public violence in the country (Nigeria Watch 2007). Usoro (2010) stated that there are about 30,000 accidents with about 35,000 casualties occurring yearly. About 90 persons are killed or injured daily and about 4 persons dies or get injured every hour from RTA. He argues that the figures are underestimated because of poor reporting and poor recording of road accidents in the country. Low socio economic groups have been found to be at higher risk of road traffic injuries (Thomas et al 2004) and they are less likely to have the capacity to bear the direct or indirect cost related to RTA. They are faced with more poverty burden as they lose their bread winner; lose earnings while caring for the injured or disabled, the cost for funeral and prolonged health care (DFID 2003). RTC has its greatest impact among the young and is the third leading cause of death between ages 5 45years (WHO 2009) with a reduction in the Countrys productive force, further worsening the economic situation, thus affecting the country achieving its MDGS 1 AND 4. The major causes of RTC in Nigeria are; high speed, alcohol, bad roads, poor vehicle conditions etc (Usoro 2010). Although there is limited literature to show the different percentages of the causes of RTC in Nigeria, high speed is most implicated in low income countries (WHO 2009). Studies have shown that a 5% increase in average speed can result in approximately 20% increase in fatal crashes (Transport Research centre 2006) and with a 1mph reduction in average speed there is a reduction in accident injuries by 5% (Finch et al 1994). The introduction of speed cameras in the Isle of Wight, UK resulted in an 83% reduction of speed on the island (Environment and Transport select Committee 2004). Reducing speed has also been shown to have positive effects on health outcomes e.g. reducing respiratory problems associated with health outcomes (Transport Research Centre 2006). There is therefore urgent need for action to prevent this future pandemic. PROPOSED CHANGE (POLICY CONTENT): Introduction of speed cameras and enforcement of speed limits on Nigerian roads. Enforcement of speed limits via mobile cameras has been shown to be the single most effective strategy for reducing fatality from RTC (Chisom and Naci 2008). It is thus most rational among other rational strategies but has to muddle its way through the policy process. Hence the nature of change follows the mixed scanning model. For better understanding of the complex multifaceted nature of policy making, the proposed policy change is seen as passing through a process taking place in a particular context influenced by the participants/actors (the policy analysis triangle) (Buse et al 2005). THE POLICY PROCESS: The policy process can be broken down into series of stages called the ‘stages heuristic (Sabatier and Jenkins-smith cited in Buse et al. 2005).It provides a theoretical framework for understanding the times and places where tactical approaches can be applied to influence policy change (Buse et al 2005). Before going on with the policy process, it will be worthwhile understanding the countrys policy context as this will assist in shaping the process. THE NIGERIAN POLICY CONTEXT: The proposed health policy change can be affected by the following contextual factors (Leichter 1979): Situational factors: This includes the increasing wide spread public awareness and burden caused by RTA in the country as stated above. Cultural factors: There are about 250 ethnic groups (Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba been the major ethnic groups) in Nigeria. The major religions are Christianity, Islamism, traditional beliefs. These major religious and ethnic groups are the most politically influential and most populous in the country (CIA 2009). Most people believe that road accident is spiritual and is caused by evil spirits (Sarma 2007). Hence the religious leaders, traditional/ethnic group leaders will play an important role in convincing their followers and improving ownership for community support and policy implementation success. International factors: Road safety issues have increased in momentum on the global agenda (termed the decade of action) with an ambitious target to reduce road fatalities by year 2020. It is supported by international bodies such as WHO, WB, DFID, FIA foundation and other UN organisation (Commission for global road safety 2009). These bodies will thus have an impact on the formulation of policies, funding, dialogue, planning, and advocacy guidelines for any country embarking on a road safety policy initiative. Structural Factors: (a) Political system: Nigeria is a democratic federation with levels of authority expressed at the federal, state and local government areas. There are 36 states and the federal capital territory, 774 LGAs further divided into 9555 wards (the lowest political unit in the country). There are 3 arms of government, the Executive arm, Judiciary and the Legislature at the federal and state levels. The legislative arm comprises of the upper house (the senate) and the lower house (the House of Representatives) elected from the state senatorial districts and the constituencies respectively. Each state has an elected governor, the house of assembly, an executive council with powers to make laws. Each local government area has an elected executive chairman and an elected legislative council of members from electoral wards. The state government has substantial autonomy and control over the allocation and utilization of their resources (WHO 2009b). The Federal Road Safety Commission: This is the lead agency that regulates, enforces and coordinates all road safety management activities at both the national, state and LGA level through their special marshals (Volunteer arm) and regular marshals (Uniformed). They play a major role in determining and enforcing speed limits for various types of roads and vehicles (FRSC 2010). They receive assistance from the police, civil defence corps, NGOS etc. (b) Civil societies, NGOs form e.g. RAPSON, APRI, SAVAN, and interest groups are key actors in public policy making and can participate at the committee stages of how a bill becomes a law. (c)Socio economic situation: Nigeria is classified as a low income group country with a gross national income per capital of $930 (WHO 2009a).This can affect getting the road safety policy on the agenda among many other competing health issues. To the ease the policy issue from the agenda setting to implementation and evaluation, a stakeholder analysis is very important. STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS: It helps to key Actors; assess their interest, power, alliance, position and importance in relation to the policy. It will help to identify and act to prevent misunderstanding and opposition to the policy (Schmeer 2000). AGENDA SETTING: This step involves getting the issue onto the policy agenda from among other issues that can potentially be of interest to policy makers (Buse et al 2005). Kingdon (1984) proposed that policies get on the agenda through 3 independent streams (problem, politics and policy stream) which converge at a point called the policy window. This is the point a policy change is most likely to occur. Mobilising the Media: McCombs and Shaw (1972) first developed the agenda setting theory, showing a strong correlation between media agenda and the public agenda on US presidential campaigns in 1968, 1972 and 1976. The media, been successful in telling the public what to think about (University of Twente 2004), will be mobilised to influence the publics opinion and consequently the government through TV and radio programmes/ News, News papers and articles from professional bodies with emphasis on the magnitude and possible solution to reducing the mortality from road traffic accidents. Restriction can also be made to misleading adverts which will encourage speed. Personal experience of RTC (direct or indirect) could be a more powerful teacher than the media (University of Twente 2004) but both will complement each other in improving the public agenda and subsequently the policy agenda. POLICY FORMULATION AND ADOPTION: This involves the steps taken after the issue is placed on the agenda up till when it is implemented. This part of the process strongly lies in the domain of the legislators which determines how a bill becomes law and is implemented as shown below: Formulation Strategies: To keep the issue on the agenda through this stage, there is need for: Continuous campaigns and Advocacy: Grassroots lobbying (mobilizing the public to contact legislators or other policy makers about the problem) and Direct Lobbying (Phone calls, writing of letters, face to face interactions), Mass Support by attending committee meetings, Informing international stakeholders that the issue is on the agenda, Bargaining for supporters from the legislators to improve Alliance. POLICY IMPLEMENTATION: This involves the process by which a policy is turned into practice (Buse et al 2005). The bottom -up approach (Lipsky 1980) will be a very good approach for the implementation such that there is flow of information from the implementers to the policy makers. However, attempt will be made to include the top-down approach in order to minimise deviation from the intended policy outcome. The implementation process would require time and resources and should be a gradual process. It would be worthwhile having a pilot project in an area identified by researchers to have a high mortality from RTA before implementation at a National level. Initial rapid needs assessment: The road safety system would be assessed to find out what is needed. The team should include; the police, road safety commission, researchers, health economist, NGOs, the NURTW, Volunteers, medical teams, Health policy analyst, the media, ministry of transport, support from developmental partners, community/religious leaders and involving the government at all levels. The assessment will provide scientific, managerial and technological functions of the policy from planning to evaluation. On identification of the specific needs, the implementation work plan will be drawn. Community/religious leaders will play a key role in advocating within their communities/religious groups in convincing their followers that RTC can be prevented and is not spiritual. Implementation schedule: Legislation to specify speed limits applicable to different types of roads. Identifying strategic check points which should be areas identified to have a relatively high RTC resulting from high speed. Random positioning of the team to monitor vehicle speed with the mobile speed cameras Fines to be paid by violators will be fixed and revenue generated be used for maintain and purchase of speed cameras. License suspension of violators who violates the law over a specific number of times as will be stated. The use of publicity to inform the public on the new law, its benefits and penalties. EVALUATION AND FEEDBACK: Buse et al (2005 p) defines evaluation as research designed specifically to assess the operation and or impact of a programme or policy in order to determine whether the programme or policy is worth pursuing further The engineering model suggests that ideally there should be a direct relationship between research findings and policy decisions but however this is completely not applicable as there tends to be gaps between the two communities. Advocacy coalition is needed to reduce this gap and should include improving the knowledge of policy makers by providing a range of different research reports via the media, conferences and seminars, ensuring that major policies have evaluations built into their budgets and implementation plans and establish intermediate institutions to review research and determine its policy implications e.g. NICE in England and Wales (Buse et al 2005). The evaluation process will involve the use of the formative evaluation (qualitative-observations, semi-structured interviews, focus groups, progress reports) at the early stage to provide advice to policy makers. It may then be used to modify and develop the program. It will also involve the use of a summative evaluation (quantitative- morbidity and mortality rates) which measures outcome and the extent to which the programme has met its objectives. Evaluation of the performance: Speed limit enforcement will also be done at the micro, meso and macro levels. The micro level will include accessing performance of the teams at the district levels, the effectiveness of the enforcement protocols used, the level of corruption and any implementation gaps. The meso level will include accessing performance at the organisation level which will include the time taken to attend to offenders when referred to the road safety centres, and their role assisting and supervising the team at the district level. The macro level: this involves accessing financing of the programme and its function at the national or international level. CONCLUSION: The policy process is a cyclical process occurring in the environment of a changing political context. There is thus the need for continuous advocacy coalition networking, monitoring and evaluation at all times. However, other causes of RTC such as bad roads, drinking and driving which are not fully implemented in the country should not be neglected as future plans should be made to further reduce the burden of RTC to the barest minimum. The implementation of the mobile speed cameras and speed limit enforcement will help reduce RTC mortalities and disabilities, improve research and also quality of life thereby unlocking growth and freeing resources for use on other health concerns with the view of achieving the MDGs. References: Aeron-Thomas, A., Jacobs, G.D., Sexton, B. 2004. The involvement and impact of road crashes on the poor : Bangladesh and India case studies [Online]. Available at: www.grsproadsafety.org//The%20Poor_final%20final%20report.pdf. [Accessed: 9 March 2010]. Buse, K., Mays, N. and Walt, G. 2005. Making health policy. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). 2009. The world fact book- Nigeria [Online]. Available at: http://www.cia.gov/library/publication/the -world-factbook/print/ni.html. [Accessed: 23 February 2010]. Commission for global road safety. 2009. A decade for action for road safety: a brief planning document [Online]. Available at: www.makeroadssafe.org/publications//doa_booklet_v2.pdf. [Accessed: 24 February 2010]. Department for International Development. 2003. Guildlines for estimating the cost of road traffic crashes in developing countries [online]. Available at: www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea//1_807_R%207780.PDF. [Accessed: 9 May 2010]. Devon and Cornwall Police. 2009. Road collision unit: definition of road traffic collision [Online]. Available at: http://www.devon-cornwall.police.uk/Traffic/CollisionUnit/Pages/default.aspx. [Accessed: 22 March 2010]. Donabedian A. 1978.The quality of medical care. Science(200), p.856-164. Federal Road safety corps. 2010. Vision, mission and statement [Online]. Available at http://www.frsc.gov.ng/vision.php. [Accessed: 22 March 2010]. Finch, D. J., Kompfer, P., Lockwood, C. R, et al. (1994). Speed, speed limits and accidents, TRL Project Report 58, TRL, Crowthorne. Jagaba, A. 2009. How a bill becomes law: an example of ICPC act [Online]. Available at: www.snsn.com.ng//50-how-a-bill-becomes-lawan-example-of-icpc-act-. [Accessed: 11 March 2010]. Lipsky, M. 1980. Street level bureaucracy: dilemmas of the individual in public services. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. McCombs, M., and Shaw, D. 1972. The agenda-setting function of the mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly (36), p 176-185. Nigeria Watch. 2007. First annual report on public violence 2006-2007. France: Institut de recherche pour le dà ©veloppement). Oxford University Press. 2010. English language teaching: bill [Online]. Available at: http://www.oup.com/oald-bin/web_getald7index1a.pl. [Accessed: 10 March 2010]. Policy and Nutrition. 2010. Obesity [Online]. Available at: http://courses.washington.edu/nutr531/lectures/Policy07.ppt. [Accessed: 10 March 2010]. Rosaler, M. 2005. Measles. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. Sarma, A.B. 2007. Beliefs and Character: Theology and Ethics of Road Safety in Nigeria [Online]. Available at: www.tcnn.org/index_files/sarma.html. [Accessed: 11 March 2010]. Savan demographic map www.savan.org/diary_big.html. Schmeer, K. 2000. Stakeholder analysis guidelines: section 2 of policy toolkit for strengthening health reform. Partners for Health reform. Washington DC World Health Organisation. 2008. The global burden of disease: 2004 update [Online]. Available at: www.who.int//global_burden_disease/GBD_report_2004update_full.pdf. [Accessed: 8 March 2010]. World Health Organisation. 2009. Global report on road safety: time for action [Online]. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563840_eng.pdf. [Accessed: 7 march 2010]. World Health Organization. 2009. WHO country cooperation strategy 2008-2013, Nigeria [Online]. Available at: www.afro.who.int//3340-country-cooperation-strategy-nigeria-2008-2013.html. [Accessed: 12 February 2010]. World Bank. 2010. World development indicators: population, Nigeria [Online]. Available at: www.google.com/publicdata. [Accessed: 10 March 2010]. Zaal, D. 1994. Traffic Law enforcement: a review of the literature [Online]. Available at: http://www.monash.edu.au †º MUARC †º Reports and brochures. [Accessed: 11 March 2010].

Shakespeare?s 10 things Essay -- essays research papers

1. Betrayal and revenge 2. Metaphors of death-King Lear, Merchant of Venice, Othello 3. Humor- A Midsummer Night's Dream, As You Like It 4. Pastoral settings- Ling Lear, A midnight Summer's Dream 5. Madness and insanity- Othello, Midnight Summer?s Dream, King Lear 6. Reversal- the main character falls from a high place 7. Letters- King Lear, Merchant of Venice 8. Things are not as they appear- King Lear, Merchant of Venice, Midsummer Night?s Dream 9. The Father/Daughter Conflict-Midsummer, King Lear, Merchant of Venice 10. Justice- King Lear, Merchant of Venice The Father/Daughter Conflict- In Midnight Summers Dream, Egeus commands Hermia, his daughter, to wed Demetrius, whom she does not love. Against the advisement of the Duke Theseus, who recommends that, ''To you your father should be as a god", (Act I, Scene I, Line 48). Hermia wishes to marry Lysander. Egeus threatens his daughter with the penalty of death or exile. In The Merchant of Venice, Shylock?s daughter, Jessica, denies her faith and steals from her father in order to marry Lorenzo, a man of whom she is unequally yoked. In King Lear, the title character, ruler of Britain, attempts to divide his kingdom according to the profession of love by his three daughters: Goneril, Regan and Cordelia. Goneril and Regan profess undying love choosing the most melodic words, while Cordelia is speechless at the task, stating:..........Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave .....................My heart into my mouth: I love your majesty .....................According to my bond; nor more nor less. (Lines 93-95) King Lear becomes angry with Cordelia and banishes her. The other daughters begin to treat him viciously, Goneril slapping him at one point. Letters- Shakespeare uses letters as characters in the plays that serve to tie key factors together for cohesion and clarity. In the Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare uses a letter from Antonio to bring the culmination of events to a head at the end of the play, setting the stage for the courtroom scene. Antonio writes, "my ships have all miscarried"(314) He tells his friend of his troubles and beckons him to come see him one last time as he ultimately gives his life for his friend?s debt. If Bassanio does not go to the court proceedings, then his wife Portia has no cause to be in the court scene, which leads to A... ...ia?s life without her father would have been an unhappy one. She reflects in the first scene that it is this love and attachment that kept her celibate for so long. With the newly revived relationship and her father?s final recognition of Cordelia, she would not have been able to bear losing him again in the event of his demise. Although the image of Lear holding Cordelia seems horrific, it is actually quite pleasant to see that final image of him cradling Cordelia as a father would a beloved daughter. Shylock?s ill deeds do not go unpunished in The Merchant of Venice. The climactic courtroom scene where Portia tricks the Jew into submission give credence to Shakespeare?s theme of justice throughout each play. As the audience stomachs through each act, watching Shylock?s moods shift from rage to self pity and eventually to the brink of lunacy, they anticipate justice being served to the ill-famed character. The fact that Shakespeare uses a woman to mastermind and in effect hand over the sentence, cemented by the male judge, is another part of justice being served in that Jessica, Shylock?s daughter, was unable to stand up to her father and speak against his will.

On the Want of Money

Robyn Sumibcay April 4, 2013 Period 5 Carvalho On the Want of Money It all dates back to ten thousand years ago when money became one of the world’s greatest obsessions. From bartering to coinage to paper, the want and need for money has never changed. In author William Hazlitt’s essay, On the Want of Money, he clearly describes how money can effectively make or break one’s life. He uses examples, syntax, diction, and tone to show that in a world without money a human being will experience the harshness of life.After stating his position that â€Å"one cannot get on well in the world without money. † author Hazlitt lists a variety of examples to show the outcome of one’s life if they were to live without money. He clearly states that without money your life will basically be miserable, and useless. He not only shares examples of how life would be without money, but also a little bit about how it would be WITH money. His long list of harsh examples a llows the reader to paint a picture of Hazlitt’s position.Considering that the whole essay consists of three sentences, the readers begin to feel overwhelmed. By overwhelming the reader, they’re able to get a sense of the burden they would feel if they were to live without money. The method of listing also makes readers see the endlessness of problems a person may over go. Listing examples of the way life would be without money makes the reader change their perspective of living â€Å"freely†. On the Want of Money is filled with harsh diction which creates a dreary tone for readers.Hazlitt uses a list of negative words such as, â€Å"despised†, â€Å"rejected†, â€Å"carped†, â€Å"disparaged†, â€Å"scrutinized†, â€Å"neglected†, â€Å"thrall†, â€Å"irksome†, â€Å"compelled†, â€Å"deprived†, â€Å"back-biting†, â€Å"disappointment†, and â€Å"burden† to emphasize the severe effects and harshness of being poor. By emphasizing in his essay, readers are able to realize the way their life would change dramatically if money were to be completely abolished from their lives. Harsh diction also helps express the endlessness of negative outcomes. Not only does harsh diction create negativity but also produces a dreary, unemotional-like tone.By creating a solemn tone, readers are then able to realize the appreciation they should have toward money. Diction and tone really has an effect on the readers because it helps them feel what it’s like without money, and creates an experience of being less fortunate. Money plays a major role in a human beings life because although it’s deniable, money can sometimes really be the answer to happiness. Without money, a person may end up living a hard, struggling life. No matter what form that money is in, a person should always carry it around to be able to get through the harshness and reality of life.

Increasing Technology and Decreasing Media Credibility Essay

As the power of technology grows, information has become not only easier to spread, but has also become more generally accessible. Anyone who seeks news from any part of the world can easily find it on the internet. Previously, the most common form of information distribution was through newspapers, printed in large quantities and sold for small fees. Now newspapers are having to make their way on to the internet, printing less in favor for online subscriptions to digital copies of their productions. This practice has caused a general shift from less physical productions of media to more web based publications, as brought to attention by Ira H. Fuchs, author of the article â€Å"Prospects and Possibilities of the Digital Age.† Also, the†¦show more content†¦Within minutes of an event, details of what happened can be found readily available from anywhere. Proponents of this, such as Newton, however, see that having a completely online basis for information distribution has its draw backs. For one, the general increase in newspapers requiring an online subscription in order to operate is actually causing these newspapers to financially come into some problems. Because many people are not so willing to pay to electronically read the paper, many would rather seek out a source that remains free but also contains the same information. In turn, the newspaper who sought to remain current has essentially harmed itself with less sales in physical copies simply because they are not being produced and also losing money by running a site for profit and not receiving as many subscriptions. Eventually, with the decrease of physical distribution there won’t be free ources online and internet access will be required to get much news at all, counteracting the good intentions of spreading information through digital means. Other than issues with the spread of news, how the information is acquired and subsequently presented in a written and visual sense is also changing with a greater demand for freelance work and less full time paid staff. For those who view this as an advantage, economically this can make a great deal of sense. News sources pay a small amount for one specific pieceShow MoreRelatedPrint Is Not So Fast1573 Words   |  7 Pagesdetails how print media has been transitioning from the physical, tangible print that it has been for centuries to the World Wide Web and other digital formats. Once print media is transferred to a digital format it is more easily distributed and is typically more cost effective than when it had to be printed. However, completely transferring all advertisement from print media to a digital format may not always be prudent. 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Essay on School Examinations Should Be Abolished - 1130 Words

Examinations, as we know it, have emerged to be the main facet of modern education in the ever-changing landscape of academia. In an education infrastructure that is as unpredictable as the clouds, it is somewhat ironic that the system of examinations as a means of judging a student’s ability has prevailed through the years. Every person, in their quest for knowledge, would inevitably encounter numerous modes of examinations throughout the course of their academic journey. As much importance has been attached to it in virtually every academic institutions across the globe, the voices of those who lobby for its eradication are seldom heard, let alone be considered seriously. There are various reasons for policymakers to initiate a rethink†¦show more content†¦As the rigid examination system goes, he would be labeled and remembered for his mediocre results in the examination, and not for the sterling performances he consistently displays in the daily assignments. It doe s not help that, through many years of societal developments and evolutions, the adults of our world have grossly incorrect mindsets on the topic of examinations. More emphasis is placed on examinations just because they are the sole mode of assessment that counts in the final grading. As much as the general public loves to refute, our society is driven by an extremely judgmental mindset which marginalize those without distinctions or notable achievements in their academic pursuits. It is simply wrong and unjust to base a student’s intelligence and ability on a single examination. The fact that daily assignments are neglected leaves us with another point to ponder over. If it has come to the student’s realization that pieces of work which are handed out daily are unimportant, won’t he then turn a blind eye to punctuality and accountability? 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Exceptional Hardships, Challenges, Or Opportunities Make

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Breakeven Analysis and Cost Volume Profit - Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss about the Breakeven Analysis and Cost Volume Profit. Answer: Every business is conducted with the motive of achieving some targets and objectives. Profit maximisation is one of the key objectives of the business in order to survive and grow smoothly. Profit is the important parameter of the overall success of the business. Hence, it must be pre-determined by any business using various analytical tools and techniques of management accounting. Few of those tools have been discussed below. Breakeven analysis is the important tool of management accounting that is used to determine the point of breakeven. Horngren (2009) clears that this analysis focuses on the relationship between the sales revenues and total costs of the business. Breakeven point is the level of activity which is achieved by any business when its total revenue from sales is exactly equal to its total expenses. It is the point where a firm neither earns any profit nor it incurs any loss from its operating activities. This point is also termed as point of equilibrium. It can be calculated in monetary terms as well as unitary terms. Business managers use breakeven point as the point of reference above which sales should be achieved to generate the profits for the firm. As per Hansen, Mowen Guan (2007) the analysis of breakeven is undertaken in two conditions which are discussed below: Linear cost and revenue relationship and the Non-linear cost and revenue relationship. On the basis of the above mentioned conditions, following are the methods of determining breakeven point for businesses and products: Graphical method: Although breakeven point for any products or business can be identified using equations but information can be communicated more effectively using visual formats. The pictorial presentation of the breakeven point helps the managers in understanding the immediate and clear results. Under graphical method, the relationship between sales revenue, cost and the volume is depicted. This method is used for linear breakeven analysis. Under this method price of the product is kept constant and the production of the company is expanded. Therefore, it shows the linearity between the total revenue of the business and its quantum of output. Algebraic Method: It is also known as equation method of calculating the breakeven point of sales which is represented by an equation that is based on formula for cost volume profit. P(x) = v(x) + FC + Profit Where, P= selling price per unit, X= number of units, V= variable cost per unit FC= total fixed cost. At the point of breakeven sales, the profit is zero and therefore the simplified CVP formula is used. Contribution analysis method: Under this method the additional or incremental sales revenue and costs related to it are analysed to determine the point of breakeven sales. Contribution is determined by deducting the total variable cost of the business (in case of firm dealing in single product) from the total revenue from the sale of the given product. This can also be determined by the graphical representation under which the line of total cost including both the fixed and variable cost is parallel to the variable cost. And at breakeven point both the lines of total revenue (which increases with the increase in level of output) and the total cost line are intersected by each other. The profit volume ratio: This is another method to identify the breakeven point for the product. It uses the formula to determine the point at which there is no profit and loss occurred in the business. Johnston (2017) confirmed that the formula for breakeven point can be used to identify the breakeven sales both in dollar terms and in terms of units. To determine the breakeven point in units the total fixed cost of the business (in case of a single product) or the allocated fixed cost to a particular product (in case of multiple products dealing) is divided with the contribution per unit. Contribution per unit is calculated by deducting the variable cost per unit from the selling price per unit. The resulted figure from the above calculation gives the breakeven sales units. According to Gutierrez Dalsted (1990) below the breakeven point the company will not be able to recover its total fixed cost and hence incur losses and above breakeven point the firm starts generating profits fr om that particular product. To calculate the breakeven point in terms of dollars the total fixed cost involved in the production of a particular product is divided with the contribution margin of that product. Contribution margin is determined by dividing the contribution per unit by the selling price per unit of the concerned product. The above discussed formulas are mathematically represented in the following manner: Breakeven Sales Calculation In Units= Total Fixed Cost (Bazley, Hancock Robinson, 2014). Contribution per Unit In Dollars= Total Fixed Cost (Cafferky, 2010). P/V Ratio Decision making is an important function that every business manager has to carry in the normal course of business. It involves selection of the best suitable alternative. Only quality decisions taken on correct time can contribute to achievement of desired goals and objectives of business. There are various tools that are being used by the managers of business to undertake the concrete decision making. According to Drury (2013) cost volume profitability analysis is one among those important and simplified tools used in management accounting as it supports the profit planning of the business. It basically analyses the relationship between the cost, volume and profit from a particular product dealt by the business. All the three factors are interconnected as well as dependent on each other (Horngren, Bhimani, Datar, Foster Horngren, 2002). These factors have direct influence on the firms profitability level. The cost volume profitability analysis is mainly aimed to assess the effect of change in the costs or prices or volume on the overall profitability. As per Wang, Li Zhang (2002) the study of CVP analysis is a comprehensive study and covers breakeven analysis as its part. The prime thrust of the management that remains for all the times throughout the business is to generate good profitability level and hence CVP analysis plays significant role in the profit planning of the firm. It also facilitates the cost control decision making. Profit cannot be attained in the business till the point of breakeven. Therefore, after breakeven point it is necessary to examine the shifts in the cost and the volume. For this purpose cost volume profitability analysis is considered. The CVP analysis allows the managers in analysing the potential impact of broad set of strategic decisions in the key areas such as pricing policies, market expansions or the change in product mixes etc., on the overall profitability of the business. The critical analysis of cost volume profitability of the business enables the managers of the firm to determine and set a desired level of profit to be target in the given period and to emphasize on its relationship with other income statement elements so as to determine the unknown. One of the common unknown element in such applications is the volume of sales that must be generated to achieve the desired level of profits. The major benefits of the CVP analysis can be derived by the managers in the areas like profit planning, decision making, price determination, cost control and in the preparation of budgets. For the planning of profits it is important to find the most profitable and suitable combination of selling price, volume and the cost. Therefore, by using CVP analysis managers can take appropriate and adequate measures to increase its profits by reducing the related costs of the particular activity. It therefore helps in assessing the firms margin of safety. Yuan (2009) argued that CVP analysis also supports the decision making process of managers when they have to determine the production mix, whether to produce the product or buy it from external market, selection of suitable distribution channel and the marketing strategy that must be used, choosing the appropriate pricing policy. CVP analysis also serves a base to determine the price of the product which the firm is dealing in by establishi ng the sensitivity of product prices to its sales volume. Since, CVP helps in evaluating the impact of cost on sales volume in order to review the firms profits and total costs incurred. To achieve the targeted profits, firms determine the desired sales level and hence prepare various flexible budgets which can indicate the estimated costs and expected revenues at different stages of production (Garrison, Noreen Brewer McGowan, 2010). From the above study, it can be concluded that, to achieve the desired results from the business managers must formulate such strategies and policies which can serve the purpose. The employment of various tools and techniques in the business operations can take the business to the next level. The advanced techniques of management accounting such as breakeven analysis, cost volume profitability analysis are the key analytical tools that helps the business in achieving the maximum profitability with the minimum cost. Hence, these techniques must be used by the managers in making the overall decisions for their businesses. References: Bazley, M., Hancock, P. Robinson, P., 2014. Contemporary accounting, Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?id=KgepBQAAQBAJpg=PA543dq=break+even+analysis+pdfhl=ensa=Xved=0ahUKEwj4m-vl8tbXAhVJto8KHZuiB5IQ6AEIMTAC#v=onepageq=break%20even%20analysis%20pdff=false. Assessed on 02-01-2017. Cafferky, M. (2010).Breakeven Analysis: The definitive guide to cost-volume-profit analysis. Business Expert Press. DRURY, C. M. (2013).Management and cost accounting. Springer. Garrison, R. H., Noreen, E. W., Brewer, P. C., McGowan, A. (2010). Managerial accounting.Issues in Accounting Education,25(4), 792-793. Gutierrez, P. H., Dalsted, N. L. (1990).Break-even method of investment analysis. Colorado State University Cooperative Extension. Hansen, D., Mowen, M., Guan, L. (2007).Cost management: accounting and control. Cengage Learning. Horngren, C. T. (2009).Cost accounting: A managerial emphasis, 13/e. Pearson Education India. Horngren, C. T., Bhimani, A., Datar, S. M., Foster, G., Horngren, C. T. (2002).Management and cost accounting. Harlow: Financial Times/Prentice Hall. Johnston, K. (2017), How to Calculate Break-even Point for Products. Retrieved from: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/calculate-breakeven-point-products-59448.html Accessed on: 02-01-2017. Wang, F. S., Li, H. L., Zhang, Y. (2002). Cost-volume-profit Analysis Method Based on Activity-Based Costing [J].China Soft Science,8, 022. Yuan, F. C. (2009). The use of a fuzzy logic-based system in cost-volume-profit analysis under uncertainty.Expert Systems with Applications,36(2), 1155-1163.